Retrieval-Based Learning: A Decade of Progress

Introduction 1 A Primer on Retrieval-Based Learning 2 Direct Versus Mediated Effects of Retrieval Practice 2 Balancing Retrieval Success and Retrieval Effort 4 Theories of Retrieval-Based Learning 5 Transfer-Appropriate Processing 5 Strength and Retrieval Effort 5 Elaborative Retrieval Account 6 Episodic Context Account 7 Manipulations of Initial Retrieval Practice Conditions 7 Retrieval Practice Compared to Restudy and Elaborative Study 7 Comparisons of Recall, Recognition, and Initial Retrieval Cueing Conditions 8 Retrieval Practice With Initial Short-Answer and Multiple-Choice Tests 9 Positive and Negative Effects of Initial Multiple-Choice Questions 11 Spaced Retrieval Practice 12 Direct Manipulations of Initial Episodic Retrieval 14 Characteristics of Final Assessments of Learning 14 Retention Interval 15 Ancillary Measures on Criterial Assessments 15 Transfer of Learning 17 Generalizing Across Learner Characteristics, Materials, and Educational Contexts 19 Learner Characteristics 19 Materials 20 Educational Contexts 21 Conclusions and Future Directions 23 Acknowledgments 23 References 23